"تاریخ پڑھو، تاریخ پڑھو۔ ریاست داری کے تمام راز تاریخ میں پوشیدہ ہیں۔" - کنفیوشس*
Monday, June 29, 2026
معاہدہ درعیہ: اسلامی تاریخ کا اہم موڑ
Saturday, June 27, 2026
The Treaty of Diriyah: A Watershed Moment in Islamic History
Dr. Umar Khan
Dr. Khan belongs to a Lahore based Think Tank.
28-6-26
The Treaty of Diriyah: A Watershed Moment in Islamic History
“If you want to understand today you have to search yesterday.”
— Pearl S. Buck
In the medieval Christian world, monarchy and clergy walked hand
in hand, with the Pope ultimately legitimizing sovereigns. The Islamic world,
by contrast, operated differently. While there was no formal clergy akin to the
Christian priesthood, a highly respected class of learned scholars—the ulama—held
significant sway. For centuries, these scholars consistently resisted the
monarchy and its preferred interpretations of Islam, often serving as a check
on temporal power.
All of this changed in 1744. In the town of Diriyah, in the Najd
region of central Arabia, a formal alliance was signed between a struggling
political force and a new, non-mainstream religious reform movement. This was
the Treaty of Diriyah.
A History of Resistance
After the four rightly guided caliphs, the Muslim world devolved
into absolute monarchy, though rulers continued to dress their authority in
Islamic parlance, labeling themselves caliphs. The ulama,
throughout the ages, not only resisted but actively fought political pressure
from authorities who sought to legitimize their demands regardless of validity.
Scholars refused to compromise on religious principles, support unjust
policies, or legitimize the absolute authority of kings. They paid dearly for
their intransigence with repeated imprisonments, torture, and even death:
- Imam
Hanbal, the
famous Sunni scholar and founder of the Hanbali school of jurisprudence,
endured imprisonment and torture by the Abbasid caliphs but stood firm in
his ideals.
- Imam
Malik was
flogged and tortured by the Abbasid governor of Medina for invalidating an
oath of allegiance made under duress.
- Imam
Hanifa, founder
of the Hanafi school of thought, was imprisoned and likely poisoned by the
caliph for refusing to serve as chief judge and legitimize his actions.
- The Shia
imams, too, were all persecuted and allegedly poisoned by the political
establishments of their times.
The Pact That Changed Everything
But the signing of the Treaty of Diriyah fundamentally altered
this dynamic. The pact between Muhammad ibn Saud, a local emir, and Muhammad
ibn Abd al-Wahhab, a struggling religious reformer, bound them to mutual
support. The emir would provide political authority, resources, and military
protection, while the reformer would offer religious legitimacy and a mission
to influence and ally other tribes. This bond was further strengthened by
intermarriage among their offsprings, as was typical of the era.
The Treaty of Diriyah proved to be a watershed moment that would
fundamentally reshape the Islamic world. For the first time in Islamic history,
monarchy and dynastic politics received formal religious sanction. Today, this
legacy makes the Gulf region the only part of the world where absolute monarchy
still survives as a dominant political model, a distinction that is hardly
enviable.
The alliance gave the House of Saud a higher religious purpose:
the purification of Islam. This provided fervent followers with a cause for
jihad, enabling them to conquer much of the Arabian Peninsula and establish the
First Saudi State. Meanwhile, the fortunes of the Wahhab family improved
exponentially; Ibn Abd al-Wahhab, who had been expelled from many places for
teachings considered heretical, now had a platform and worldly benefits that
persist to this day.
The British Question
There are claims, and some evidence, that this treaty was signed
at the prompting of the East India Company. Having substantially strengthened
its position in India, the Company allegedly sought to pressure the Ottoman
Empire to facilitate its trade with its prized possession, the newly subjugated
India. The book Memoirs of Mr. Hempher, The British Spy to the Middle
East propagates this narrative, though its credibility is suspect. The
book argues that Britain, with its renowned divide-and-rule strategy, backed
the Wahhabi movement to weaken the Muslim world dominated by Ottoman Turks who
were predominantly Hanafi, a school of thought opposed by the Wahhabis. This
support fueled sectarian divisions, with radical elements going so far as to
label Hanafis guilty of shirk, the ultimate sin.
Despite the book's doubtful origin, later developments such as
Saudi relations with the British in the 19th and 20th centuries lend some
credence to the theory. During the tumultuous periods of the First, Second, and
Third Saudi states, dissidents consistently found refuge in British
protectorates when out of power and returned as rulers, a pattern reminiscent
of Afghan princes in British India. The Treaty of 1865, the Treaty of Darin
(1915), and the Treaty of Jeddah (1927) all confirm the closeness of these
relations. The later adventures of Lawrence of Arabia and the Arab Revolt
against the Ottomans may well have their origins hidden here.
Intellectual Corruption and Its Legacy
The treaty and the subsequent formation of a semi-theocratic
state gave religious legitimacy to the House of Saud and worldly benefits to
the House of Wahhab (known as Al al-Shaykh). They still hold the most senior
religious positions in the Kingdom, including the Grand Mufti and the Ministry
of Justice. But like any subservient government department, they cannot deviate
from the official line of the monarchs. Their religious interpretations cannot
cross the red lines of their patrons' conveniences. Loyalty to the ruling
family assures comforts and privileges that quickly become necessities, ultimately
affecting judgments and official opinions. The opulence of clergy in Pakistan
riding arrogantly in expensive SUVs might also have origins deeply embedded in
this treaty.
Corruption of any kind is bad, but intellectual corruption is
arguably its worst form due to the immense harm it can cause. When scholars,
experts, or leaders manipulate data, logic, or ethics to serve vested
interests, they poison the well of truth, destroy public trust, and normalize
unethical behavior at a societal level. Intellectuals hold the highest place in
societies because they are supposed to be immune to the temptations of worldly
possessions. Vulnerable ulama, however, can serve edicts and
justify acts for their immediate benefit rather than for actual righteousness.
Such quid pro quos are expected and natural.
Along with legitimizing absolute monarchy, Islam, which once encompassed
a whole way of life, was reduced to a set of rituals. Acts of worship (ibadat)
were emphasized, while the real problems of common people were ignored. This
sanctified and validated monarchy, the root cause of most ills. Oppression,
corruption, backwardness, intolerance, instability, and factionalism found
fertile ground to germinate and grow in these undemocratic societies. Traveling
from Europe to Pakistan in my younger days, I was surprised to find rampant
corruption in government departments across the Islamic world, something I
never saw in the West.
While much of the world was moving toward democracy and
democratic institutions, this religious support for absolute monarchy became a
major hindrance to institutional development in the Islamic world. The
historical destruction or collapse of nations rarely results from a single
catastrophic mistake; instead, it is almost always the culmination of a
cascading series of systemic errors. After the banning of the press, the
alliance of religious authority with dynastic absolute monarchy was probably
the most harmful development in the Islamic world.
Conclusion: A Call for Reflection
This single historical event became a pivotal watershed in
Islamic history, redirecting its course in a way that ultimately stifled
intellectual and political progress. The legacy of this shift is often cited as
a root cause of the region's current volatility, institutional fragility, and
resistance to reform.
In today's world, if over a billion Muslims, followers of the
true faith, have fallen far behind others, they must have done something
terribly wrong. The causes of this decline must be identified and corrected.
The initial priority should be the decoupling of religious and political
authority, a process Europe accomplished centuries ago, which laid the
foundation for its long-term development and prosperity.
“Tumhari dastan bhi na rahe gi daastano mein” Allama Iqbal
“Study
history, study history. In history lies all the secrets of statecraft.”
— Confucius
Monday, June 8, 2026
Those fateful nine months —14th August 1947 to 14th May 1948
Those fateful nine months —14th August 1947 to
14th May 1948
Just after the end of the disastrous Second
World War and the start of decolonization, on 14th August 1947, the world's
first religious-based modern nation-state, Pakistan, was born. To achieve this,
the ruling British had to divide India — though some say they tore or ripped it
apart. Exactly nine months after this mega-event, another state was born on the
basis of religion: Israel, again dividing or tearing apart Palestine this time.
In those fateful nine months, these two religion-based countries were created,
and the world changed.
Since their births, Israel and Pakistan have
had a love-hate relationship, as both consider themselves bastions of their
respective faiths. Most surveys in Pakistan report admiration with a tinge of
jealousy for Israel, even among personnel of the elite and ruling institutions.
Remarkable commonalities between Pakistan and
Israel
In addition to the timing of their births, the
commonalities between Pakistan and Israel are striking and astonishing. To
begin with, both countries are believers in Abrahamic religions — Judaism and
Islam. Despite their current hostility, they have more in common than
differences. These two are probably the two closest major religions the world has
ever witnessed.
Both countries were created in lands
controlled by the British, who were known for their finesse in implementing the
divide-and-rule policy.
Historically, Jews were most comfortable
living in Muslim-majority countries, and Hindus and Muslims also lived together
peacefully by medieval standards for over a millennium. They were much more
accommodating of each other than the Christian sects of those times.
In both places, the "other" was
demonized — Muslims in Israel and Hindus in Pakistan. The use of the words
"Yahood" and "Hanood" became acceptable in Pakistani media
with terrible connotations, and Palestinians were given the hatred-arousing
name of "terrorists" by the Israelis.
Xenophobia was effectively used as a tool to
justify this divide to an unbelievable extent. The founder of Pakistan, Mr.
Jinnah, warned Muslims: "If we do not succeed in our struggle for
Pakistan, the very trace of Muslims and Islam will be obliterated from the face
of India" (18 Jan 1942). Similarly, the Jewish leaders of Israel
repeatedly used the memory of anti-Semitism and the Holocaust for their
political purposes.
Both births were bloody and traumatic. Tens of
thousands of Palestinians were killed, and millions were uprooted from their
homes. They still call it Nakba — a kind of Holocaust. It was even worse in
Pakistan, where millions were killed brutally and tens of millions were
displaced. These were very painful births.
Both have a terrible record with their
minorities. Israelis routinely humiliate and harm Palestinians, whereas in
Pakistan, local Christians, Ahmadis, and other minorities are also
institutionally persecuted.
Religion and scriptures were used
unscrupulously in both instances.
Interestingly, the founders of both nations
were so committed to their causes that they were ready to sacrifice millions of
their own people — not to speak of their proclaimed enemies.
Ben-Gurion said: "If I knew that it was
possible to save all the children of Germany by transporting them to England,
and only half by transferring them to the Land of Israel, I would choose the
latter, for before us lies not only the numbers of these children but the
historical reckoning of the people of Israel."
When asked about the fate of the Muslims who
would be left behind in India, Jinnah stated that he was willing to
"perform the last ceremony of martyrdom if necessary" by letting 20
million Muslims be sacrificed in order to liberate the 70 million
coreligionists in Muslim-majority regions (Kanpur, March 30, 1941).
Surprisingly, after their creation, one of
them declared itself a secular state while the other made itself practically
one. Those who preached fear of the majority swiftly converted to being secular
and democratic. Jinnah's famous August 11, 1947, speech envisioned a secular Pakistan
where "you may belong to any religion or caste or creed… that has nothing
to do with the business of the State."
Both Israel and Pakistan became
nuclear-powered states and did not sign the NPT. 191 countries have signed it,
and only 5 have abstained.
Since their inceptions, Israel has fought five
major wars and innumerable smaller but lethal ones. It has fought against all
its neighbors and many countries even farther away. Not to the same extent, but
Pakistan has also fought multiple wars against its conjoined twin, India, along
with multiple Afghan wars, while having tense relations with Iran. Only China,
its most generous supporter, has avoided fighting Pakistan. In other words,
these two states are among the most violent, involved in unending wars.
All this might not have been as detrimental,
but the inculcation of hatred for those they have proclaimed as their enemies
and their propensity toward violence might be the most dangerous trends.
Effects and dangers
These nine months did not just create nations;
they created a template for modern religious nationalism — a template that has
led the world to the brink of nuclear annihilation. In the last 35 years since
the post-Cold War era, most nuclear standoffs have been among them. Talk and
threats of nuclear attacks have happened many times, and the careless manner in
which the use of nuclear weapons is mentioned is outright reckless and
alarming.
Mutually assured destruction has become the
mantra for stability among these states, but it is an extremely erratic one.
Unstable, unpredictable, and unlikely people
can reach powerful positions even in countries rated as democracies, and these
hate-filled, religious countries are most prone. With violent leaders at the
helm in this virulent, nuclear-armed environment, a single miscalculation can
be too dangerous, risking all of mankind.
The recent political instability the world is
experiencing — whether it's Israel/Iran or India/Pakistan — has both these
nations right in the center.
The most important lesson the creation of
these ethno-religious nations has taught us is that theocracy and the modern
world cannot go or survive together. It's a recipe for disaster, and on a
massive scale. It must be corrected.
Suggested corrective measures
No matter how these two political states came
into being, they are now a reality and must be accepted. Their places in the
comity of nations must be controlled and corrected to lessen their potential
for destabilization and violence. To begin with, the world must be defanged with
the removal of all nuclear weapons. All ammunition with the capacity for
indiscriminate killing — something we call terrorism — must be destroyed. We
can start by condemning the historical use of nuclear weapons and carpet
bombings, irrespective of the nationalities of the perpetrators. Anyone
dropping nuclear weapons over civilians should under no circumstances be called
a "near-great president."
The UN should be made into a world government
of confederating states and strengthened. A universal constitution with local
variations should be enforced across the whole world, controlling the greedy
outlaw states and curbing their aggression and avarice. International laws
should be drafted clearly and enforced mostly with the power of reason and
persuasion, the most powerful tool.
Hatred and demonization of all kinds — not
only anti-Semitism — are a must to create a violent frenzy that can result in
extreme cruelties, and that must be curtailed. Brutal control of media,
demonizing of entire peoples, and justification of occupation and violence must
be strongly and collectively resisted. No one country or group should be
allowed to have a monopoly on media or other consent-manufacturing tools.
The use of ancient scriptures as a real estate
guide or foreign policy instrument must be snubbed. 3,000-year-old land deeds
should not be allowed to supersede the rights of living, breathing human
beings. The use of derogatory terms with the potential to invoke violence —
like Chosen people, Amalekites, Yellow Peril — must be forcefully stamped out.
Racism of all kinds has been a source of
immense suffering throughout history and must be labeled a serious crime.
The pursuit of happiness and human welfare —
not religious supremacy or ethnic purity — should become the prime purpose of
governance.
The current situation cannot go on forever, so
let's not wait for the Armageddon some may be working hard to achieve. If the
world is unable to control the violence of religion-based countries, the birth
of these two nations will be remembered not as a historical turning point, but
as the beginning of the end.
These are the seeds of nuclear suicide. The
only corrective is to recognize that nothing — no ancient text, no historical
grievance — justifies the annihilation of mankind.